Benefits and lessons learned from the Sentinel-3 tandem phase

During its commissioning phase, the Copernicus Sentinel-3B satellite has been placed in a tandem formation with Sentinel-3A for a period of 6 months. This configuration allowed a direct comparison of measurements obtained by the two satellites. The purpose of this paper was to present the range of analyses that can be performed from this dataset, highlighting methodology aspects and the main outcomes for each instrument. We examined, in turn, the benefit of the tandem in understanding instrument operational modes differences, in assessing inter-satellite differences, and in validating measurement uncertainties. The results highlighted the very good consistency of the Sentinel-3A and B instruments, ensuring the complete inter-operability of the constellation. Tandem comparisons also pave the way for further improvements through harmonization of the sensors (OLCI), correction of internal stray-light sources (SLSTR), or high-frequency processing of SRAL SARM data. This paper provided a comprehensive overview of the main results obtained, as well as insights into some of the results. Finally, we drew the main lessons learned from the Sentinel-3 tandem phase and provided recommendations for future missions

Formation et évolution des galaxies de faible masse, de l'univers local aux décalages spectraux intermédiaires

Les galaxies de faible masse constituent la population de galaxies la plus nombreuse à tous les âges de l'Univers, et sont légitimement considérées dans un contexte cosmologique comme les "éléments fondamentaux" de la croissance des galaxies. Dans l'Univers local, les galaxies de faible masse se trouvent principalement dans des amas de galaxies où elles se forment à partir de processus complexes de formation in-situ et d'événements d' accrétion. Cependant, les détails de la formation des galaxies de faible masse et de leurs processus d'évolution, ainsi que leurs rôles exacts dans la formation des galaxies plus massives sont encore très peu contraints. Ceci est dû en particulier aux difficultés technologiques associées à leur observation. Après une introduction sur les connaissances actuelles des galaxies de faible masse, je présente l'étude d'un échantillon de huit galaxies compactes dans l'amas de la Vierge. À l'aide de leur cinématique et de propriétés telles que l'âge et la métallicité de leur population stellaire estimées avec les données du spectrographe intégral de champ (IFS) GMOS/Gemini, je démontre que les propriétés des populations stellaires évoluent de manière continue avec la taille des galaxies, leurs masses, ainsi qu'avec leurs environnements, et ceci à la fois pour les galaxies de faible et de grande masse. Cela suggère que l'ensemble des processus physiques qui contrôlent les caractéristiques des galaxies sont similaires quelle que soit la masse des galaxies, mais en revanche, leurs influences individuelles varient doucement suivant la taille et la masse des galaxies. J'estime ensuite les histoires de formation stellaire de ces huit galaxies compactes ainsi que celles d'un échantillon de 20 galaxies de faible masse, et présente une étude de leur dépandence par rapport à l'environnement et la masse des galaxies. Ainsi, grâce à cette étude, je mets en avant à la fois le rôle important de l'environnement mais également celui des galaxies les plus massives dans le contrôle de la formation et de l'évolution des galaxies de faible masse. Mais les processus d'évolution des galaxies sont complexes et les galaxies de l'Univers local sont seulement leurs produits finaux, ce qui ne donne que peu de contraintes sur l' évolution des galaxies au début de l'histoire de l'Univers. Je montre alors à l'aide d'observations de la galaxie NGC3115 obtenues avec l'IFS MUSE/VLT, que les cartes de cinématique et de populations stellaires de galaxies couvrant une grande surface et ayant une grande résolution spatiale sont des éléments clés pour révéler l'histoire d'assemblage de la masse des galaxies, et donc leur formation et leur évolution au cours de toute l'histoire de l'Univers. Pour mieux contraindre la formation des galaxies de faible masse, j'utilise donc les observations profondes de l'instrument MUSE/VLT dans le champ de Hubble (HDFS) pour étudier un échantillon de dix galaxies à des décalages spectraux intermédiaires. J' estime pour la première fois la cinématique stellaire de galaxies situées entre z ~ 0.2 - 0.7 et montre que le degré de rotation et de dispersion de vitesse stellaire est en accord avec les précédentes études portant sur la cinématique de leur gaz. De telles informations, confrontées aux modèles d'évolution de galaxies aideront ainsi à mieux comprendre la croissance en masse des galaxies ainsi que l'origine des galaxies de faible masse de l'Univers local.Low-mass galaxies form the most numerous galaxy population in the Universe at all cosmic times, and are legitimately considered as the "building-blocks" of galaxy formation in a cosmological context. In the local Universe, low-mass galaxies are preferentially found in galaxy clusters where they form through a complex chain of in-situ formation and accretion events. However, the detailed formation and evolution processes of low-mass galaxies, and their exact roles in the formation of more massive galaxies are still poorly constrained, in particular due to challenging observations. After setting the scene with an introduction on our current understanding of low-mass galaxies, I present the study of a sample of eight compact low-mass galaxies in the Virgo cluster. I derive their stellar kinematics as well as the age and metallicity of their stellar content from GMOS/Gemini Integral Field Spectrograph (IFS) data, and demonstrate that the stellar population properties evolve smoothly with galaxy size, mass and environment over the full range of galaxy mass. This suggests that a similar set of physical processes is at play on both low- and high-mass galaxies, but the relative efficiency of each of these processes in shaping galaxies varies smoothly from the low- to the high-mass ends. I then derive their star formation histories as well as those of a sample of 20 more extended typical low-mass galaxies, and present a study of their dependencies on the environment and the mass of their host galaxy. As a result, I underline through this work that the environment as well as the most massive galaxies play an important role in controlling the formation and evolution of low-mass galaxies. But local galaxies only represent the end products of a complex evolution path, leaving ambiguity about the early evolution of galaxies. However, I then show with the help of IFS observations of the nearby galaxy NGC3115 obtained with MUSE/VLT, that two-dimensional maps of the kinematics and stellar populations of galaxies, with large spatial coverage and high spatial resolution, are keys to unveil their whole mass assembly history, and thus their formation and evolution through all cosmic times. Thus, to better constrain the evolution of low-mass galaxies, I use deep MUSE/VLT observations in the Hubble Deep Field South to study low-mass galaxies at intermediate redshift. I derive for the first time the spatially resolved stellar kinematics of a sample of ten galaxies at a redshift between z ~ 0.2 - 0.7, and show that the stellar rotation amplitude and velocity dispersion are in agreement with previous studies of their gas kinematics. Such information put into the light of current galaxy evolution models will help to better understand the growth of stellar mass in galaxies and the origins of today low-mass galaxies

Dynamics of low-mass galaxies over cosmic time with MUSE

Dynamics of low-mass galaxies over cosmic time with MUS

Contributions of altimetry and Argo to non‐closure of the global mean sea level budget since 2016

Over 1993-2016, studies have shown that the observed global mean sea level (GMSL) budget is closed within the current data uncertainties. However, non-closure of the budget was recently reported when using Jason-3, Argo and GRACE/GRACE Follow-On data after 2016. This non-closure may result from errors in the datasets used to estimate the GMSL and its components. Here, we investigate possible sources of errors affecting Jason-3 and Argo data. Comparisons of Jason-3 GMSL trends with other altimetry missions show good agreement within 0.4 mm/yr over 2016-present. Besides, the wet tropospheric correction uncertainty from the Jason-3 radiometer contributes to up to 0.2 mm/yr. Therefore, altimetry alone cannot explain the misfit in the GMSL budget observed after 2016. Argo-based salinity products display strong discrepancies since 2016, attributed to instrumental problems and data editing issues. Re-assessment of the sea level budget with the thermosteric component provides about 40 % improvement in the budget closure. Plain Language Summary Sea level rise, due to the addition of meltwater from glaciers and ice-sheets in the oceans and to the thermal expansion of seawater, is commonly used as an indicator for climate change. The sea level budget provides information on temporal changes in one or more components of the budget, on process understanding, on missing contributions and allows cross validation of the observing systems involved in the sea level budget (satellite altimetry, Argo oceanic float and GRACE/GRACE Follow-On satellite gravimetry). The sea level budget was closed until 2015-2016, i.e. the observed global mean sea level agrees well with the sum of components. However, since 2016, the budget is not closed anymore. In this study, we show that errors in Argo salinity measurements are responsible for about 40 % of the budget error while the altimetry data cannot explain the remaining error. Other sources of errors should be further investigated to fully understand the error in the budget after 2016, in particular satellite GRACE/GRACE Follow-On gravity measurements or missing physical contributions

How accurate is accurate enough for measuring sea-level rise and variability

Sea-level measurements from radar satellite altimetry have reached a high level of accuracy and precision, which enables detection of global mean sea-level rise and attribution of most of the rate of rise to greenhouse gas emissions. This achievement is far beyond the original objectives of satellite altimetry missions. However, recent research shows that there is still room for improving the performance of satellite altimetry. Reduced uncertainties would enable regionalization of the detection and attribution of the anthropogenic signal in sea-level rise and provide new observational constraints on the water–energy cycle response to greenhouse gas emissions by improving the estimate of the ocean heat uptake and the Earth energy imbalance

Ionised gas structure of 100 kpc in an over-dense region of the galaxy group COSMOS-Gr30 at z ~ 0.7

21 pages, 12 figures, 3 tables, accepted for publication in A&A (27 October 2017)International audienceWe report the discovery of a 10^4 kpc^2 gaseous structure detected in [OII] λλ3727 in an over-dense region of the COSMOS-Gr30 galaxy group at z~0.725 thanks to deep MUSE Guaranteed Time Observations. We estimate the total amount of diffuse ionised gas to be of the order of (~5+-3)x10^10 Msun and explore its physical properties to understand its origin and the source(s) of the ionisation. The MUSE data allow the identification of a dozen of group members embedded in this structure from emission and absorption lines. We extracted spectra from small apertures defined for both the diffuse ionised gas and the galaxies. We investigated the kinematics and ionisation properties of the various galaxies and extended gas regions thanks to line diagnostics (R23, O32 and [OIII]/H\beta) available within the MUSE wavelength range. We compared these diagnostics to photo-ionisation models and shock models. The structure is divided in two kinematically distinct sub-structures. The most extended sub-structure of ionised gas is likely rotating around a massive galaxy and displays filamentary patterns linking some galaxies. The second sub-structure links another massive galaxy hosting an Active Galactic Nucleus to a low mass galaxy but also extends orthogonally to the AGN host disk over ~35 kpc. This extent is likely ionised by the AGN itself. The location of small diffuse regions in the R23 vs. O32 diagram is compatible with photo-ionisation. However, the location of three of these regions in this diagram (low O32, high R23) can also be explained by shocks, which is supported by their large velocity dispersions. One edge-on galaxy shares the same properties and may be a source of shocks. Whatever the hypothesis, the extended gas seems to be non primordial. We favour a scenario where the gas has been extracted from galaxies by tidal forces and AGN triggered by interactions between at least the two sub-structures